Complete oxidation of sugars to electricity by using cell-free synthetic enzymatic pathways

ABSTRACT

The present invention is in the field of bioelectricity. The present invention provides energy generating systems, methods, and devices that are capable of converting chemical energy stored in sugars into useful electricity.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.61/831,346, filed Jun. 5, 2013, the contents of which are fullyincorporated by reference herein.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to the field of bioelectricity. Moreparticularly, the present invention provides energy generating systems,methods, and devices that are capable of converting chemical energystored in a variety of renewable sugars into useful electricity. Inspecific embodiments, the present invention relates to novel syntheticenzymatic pathways for converting chemical energy from six-carbon andfive-carbon sugars to electricity using enzymatic fuel cells, andseveral key enzymes with engineered and/or newly-discovered functions.

Discussion of Related Art

Batteries are electricity storage devices. Rechargeable batteries arecurrently available. But, the energy storage densities of suchrechargeable batteries are much lower than those the energy storagedensities of hydrogen or liquid fuels (FIG. 1, Panels A and B). There isa clear need for better rechargeable batteries (FIG. 1, Panel C) withhigher energy storage density, lower costs over their entire life cycle,reduced environmental impact, and increased safety.

Enzymatic fuel cells (EFCs) are a type of biological fuel cells thatemploy enzymes to convert the chemical energy in the fuels intoelectricity. EFCs are superior to batteries mainly because they: 1) haveapproximately 10-100 times higher energy storage densities than chemicalbatteries; and 2) are more environmentally friendly due to thebiodegradability and elimination of heavy metals and costly rare metals.EFCs (FIG. 2, Panel B) have some things in common with directed methanolfuel cells (DMFCs) (FIG. 2, Panel A). But, unlike DMFCs, the enzymaticfuel cells do not need costly platinum as an anode catalyst, and theymay not use nafion membrane due to high selectivity of enzymes. Inaddition, sugars used in EFCs are less costly, non-toxic and,non-flammable compared to methanol in DMFCs, with energy densities of asugar solution being higher than the energy densities of 1 M methanolsolution. Enzymatic fuel cells are usually composed of an enzyme-loaded(enzyme-modified) anode and an enzyme-loaded (enzyme-modified) cathode(FIG. 2, Panel B).

In EFCs, electrons are generated when fuels are oxidized at an anode.The electrons then flow from the anode through an external load to acathode. Protons are generated simultaneously (with the electrons) inthe anodic reactions and pass through the polymer separator to thecathode to compensate for the electron flow. One of the largestchallenges with EFCs is the extraction of most or all of the chemicalenergy from the low-cost and most abundant sugars for electricitygeneration. The methods to utilize the all energy of the sugars have notbeen developed so far, except for the methods that utilize sugars as aheat energy source by combustion in air or as a chemical energy sourcefor the production of ATP through NAD(P)H generated by redox enzymes inliving organisms (such as microorganisms, animals). There is no methodthat is capable of effectively utilizing most of the chemical energy ofsugars directly as electric (electrical) energy.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a process forgenerating electrons from hexose sugars comprising: generating glucose6-phosphate (G6P) from a chemical reaction of 6-carbon sugar monomers orone or more 6 carbon sugars from oligohexoses or polyhexoses reactedwith polyphosphate or ATP or phosphate, wherein: (i) when usingpolyphosphate, the chemical reaction is performed in the presence ofpolyphosphate-glucose phosphotransferase; or (ii) when using ATP, thechemical reaction is performed in the presence of hexokinase, andwherein the ATP is generated by reacting ADP and polyphosphate in thepresence of polyphosphate kinase; (iii) when using free phosphate, thechemical reaction is performed in the presence of glucan phosphorylases(e.g., starch phosphorylase, maltose phosphorylase, sucrosephosphorylase, cellobiose phosphorylase, cellodextrin phosphorylase) andphosphoglucomutase; reacting the G6P and 6PG with NAD⁺ or its analogues(called biomimics in the oxidized form) in water to obtain NADH or thereduced biomimics; and oxidizing the NADH or the reduced biomimics on ananode at its surface to generate electrons. In one embodiment, theproduct of ribulose 5-phosphate is converted to G6P via a hybrid pathwayof the non-oxidative pentose phosphate pathway, glycolysis andgluconeogenesis.

In another embodiment, the process further comprises NAD biomimetics(FIG. 7. compounds A-E) to replace NAD.

In some embodiments, the process further comprises engineered glucose6-phosphate dehydrogenase and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase that canutilize NAD biomimics.

In some embodiments, the process further comprises glucose as the sugar.In one embodiment, glucose is converted to glucose 6-phosphate viapolyphosphate glucokinase or hexokinase. In some embodiments, theprocess further comprises generating the glucose from: (i) convertingfructose to glucose using glucose (xylose) isomerase; or (ii) convertingfructose to glucose with sorbitol dehydrogenase and aldehyde reductase.

In other embodiments, the process further comprises generating fructoseor fructose 6-phosphate by: (i) converting mannose to fructose usingmannose isomerase and then, in one embodiment, enter the abovefructose-utilization pathway; (ii) converting mannose to fructose6-phosphate (F6P) using polyphosphate-glucose mannose phosphotransferaseand phosphomannose isomerase and, in one embodiment, the product F6Penters a modified pentose phosphate pathway; or (iii) converting mannoseto fructose-6-phosphate by using polyphosphate kinase, hexokinase, andphosphomannose isomerase and, in one embodiment, then the product F6Penters a modified pentose phosphate pathway.

In some embodiments, the process further comprises starch ormaltodextrin as the sugars. In other embodiments, the process furthercomprises phosphate and phosphoglucomutase and starch or maltodextrinphosphorylase for G6P generation.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides a sugar batterycomprising: a solution capable of generating glucose 6-phosphate (G6P)from 6-carbon sugar monomers or one or more 6 carbon sugars fromoligohexoses or polyhexoses reacted with polyphosphate or ATP orphosphate, and for reacting the G6P with NAD⁺ or its analogues in waterto obtain NADH or its analogues (biomimetics), wherein: (i) when usingpolyphosphate, the chemical reaction is performed in the presence ofpolyphosphate-glucose phosphotransferase; or (ii) when using ATP, thechemical reaction is performed in the presence of hexokinase, andwherein the ATP is generated by reacting ADP and polyphosphate in thepresence of polyphosphate kinase; (iii) when using free phosphate, thechemical reaction is performed in the presence of glucan phosphorylasesand phosphoglucomutase; an enzyme-modified anode; an enzyme-modified orstandard platinum reference cathode; and an electrolyte, wherein theenzyme-modified anode or anode is in contact with the solutioncomprising the six carbon sugars and some enzymes in the syntheticpathways and both the cathode and the enzyme-modified anode are incontact with the electrolyte.

In some embodiments, an electrolyte is made of the pH-control buffer(e.g., HEPES) containing metal ions such as (Mg⁺⁺, Mn⁺⁺), NAD⁺ or NADHor its biomimics, and thiamine pyrophosphate. In some embodiments, thebattery is operably configured for allowing the oxidation of the NADH orits biomimetics on the anode at its surface to generate electrons.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides a system for energygeneration comprising: a fuel comprising a solution for generatingglucose 6-phosphate (G6P) from 6-carbon sugar monomers or one or more 6carbon sugars from oligohexoses or polyhexoses reacted withpolyphosphate or ATP or phosphate, and for reacting the G6P with NAD⁺and oxidized biomimetics in water to obtain NADH and reduced biomimics,wherein: (i) when using polyphosphate, the chemical reaction isperformed in the presence of polyphosphate-glucose phosphotransferase;or (ii) when using ATP, the chemical reaction is performed in thepresence of hexokinase, and wherein the ATP is generated by reacting ADPand polyphosphate in the presence of polyphosphate kinase; (iii) whenusing free phosphate, the chemical reaction is performed in the presenceof glucan phosphorylases and phosphoglucomutase; a fuel cell operablyconfigured for oxidizing the NADH and its biomimics at an anode togenerate electrons and for delivering the electrons, e.g., via anoutside circuit to a cathode. In one embodiment, a catalyst on cathodeconverts protons and oxygen to water.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides a process forgenerating electrons from the pentose sugars comprising: generatingxylulose 5-phosphate (X6P) from a chemical reaction of 5-carbon sugarmonomers reacted with polyphosphate or ATP, wherein: (i) when usingpolyphosphate, the chemical reaction is performed in the presence ofxylose isomerase and polyphosphate xylulokinase; or (ii) when using ATP,the chemical reaction is performed in the presence of xylose isomeraseand ATP-based xylulokinase, and wherein the ATP is generated by reactingADP and polyphosphate in the presence of polyphosphate kinase or acombination of polyphosphate:AMP phosphotransferase andpolyphosphate-independent adenylate kinase; entering the pentosephosphate pathway for generation of G6P; reacting the G6P with NAD⁺ andthe oxidized biomimics in water to obtain NADH and the reducedbiomimics; oxidizing the NADH and the reduced biomimics on an anode atits surface to generate electrons.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides a sugar batterycomprising: a solution capable of generating xylulose 5-phosphate from5-carbon sugar monomers reacted with polyphosphate or ATP, and forproducing glucose 6-phosphate through non-oxidative pentose phosphatepathway, and reacting the G6P with NAD⁺ or its analogues in water toobtain NADH or its analogues (biomimetics), wherein: a. when usingpolyphosphate, the chemical reaction is performed in the presence ofpolyphosphate-xylulose kinase; or b. when using ATP, the chemicalreaction is performed in the presence of xylulokinase, and wherein theATP is generated by reacting ADP and polyphosphate in the presence ofpolyphosphate kinase; an enzyme-modified anode or anode; anenzyme-modified or standard platinum reference cathode; and anelectrolyte, wherein the enzyme-modified anode or anode is in contactwith the solution comprising the five carbon sugars and some enzymes inthe synthetic pathways and both the cathode and the enzyme-modifiedanode are in contact with the electrolyte.

In some embodiments, an electrolyte is made of the pH-control buffer(e.g., HEPES) containing metal ions such as (Mg⁺⁺ or Mn⁺⁺), NAD+ or NADHor its biomimics, and thiamine pyrophosphate.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides a system for energygeneration comprising: a fuel comprising a solution for generatingxylulose 5-phosphate from five-carbon sugar monomers reacted withpolyphosphate or ATP, and for generation of G6P through thenon-oxidative pentose phosphate pathway, for reacting the G6P with NAD⁺and its biomimetics in water to obtain NADH and reduced biomimics,wherein: (i) when using polyphosphate, the chemical reaction isperformed in the presence of polyphosphate-xylulokinase; or (ii) whenusing ATP, the chemical reaction is performed in the presence ofxylulokinase, and wherein the ATP is generated by reacting ADP andpolyphosphate in the presence of polyphosphate kinase; a fuel celloperably configured for oxidizing the NADH and its biomimics at an anodeto generate electrons and for delivering the electrons to a cathode; anelectrical generator for converting the electrons from the cathode intoelectricity.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides a process forgenerating electrons from a sugar comprising: generating NADH or areduced biomimic thereof from the sugar; and oxidizing the NADH or areduced biomimic thereof to generate the electrons at an anode, whereinthe NADH or a reduced biomimic thereof is generated using a group ofenzymes comprising glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconatedehydrogenase, ribose 5-phosphate isomerase, ribulose 5-phosphate3-epimerase, transketolase, transaldolase, triose phosphate isomerase,aldolase, fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, and phosphoglucose isomerase.

In some embodiments, the process comprises a hexose or a pentose sugaras the sugar.

In one embodiment of the process, the NADH or a reduced biomimic thereofis oxidized by diaphorase. In another embodiment of the process, theNADH or a reduced biomimic thereof is oxidized in the presence of one ormore of vitamin K₃, benzyl viologen, or a biomimetic thereof. In someembodiments, one or more of vitamin K₃, benzyl viologen, or a biomimeticthereof is immobilized on the anode surface. In other embodiments, oneor more of vitamin K₃, benzyl viologen, or a biomimetic thereof is freein the anode compartment.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides a sugar batterycomprising: a solution comprising a sugar, enzymes, and an electrolyte;an anode; and a cathode, wherein the anode and the cathode are incontact with the solution; wherein the electrolyte comprises apH-control buffer containing metal ions, NAD⁺ or NADH or a biomimicthereof, and thiamine pyrophosphate, and wherein the enzymes compriseglucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase,ribose 5-phosphate isomerase, ribulose 5-phosphate 3-epimerase,transketolase, transaldolase, triose phosphate isomerase, aldolase,fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, phosphoglucose isomerase, and an enzymecapable of oxidizing NADH or a biomimic thereof.

In some embodiments, the sugar battery comprises a hexose or a pentosesugar as the sugar. In some embodiments of the sugar battery, the enzymecapable of oxidizing NADH or a reduced biomimic thereof is diaphorase.

In some embodiments, the sugar battery further comprises one or more ofvitamin K₃, benzyl viologen, or a biomimetic thereof. In someembodiments, one or more of vitamin K₃, benzyl viologen, or a biomimeticthereof is immobilized on the anode surface. In other embodiments, oneor more of vitamin K₃, benzyl viologen, or a biomimetic thereof is freein the anode compartment.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides a system forelectricity generation comprising: a solution comprising a sugar,enzymes, and an electrolyte; a fuel cell comprising an anode and acathode; and an electrical generator, wherein the solution and theelectrical generator are in contact with the fuel cell; wherein theelectrolyte comprises a pH-control buffer containing metal ions, NAD⁺ orNADH or a biomimic thereof, and thiamine pyrophosphate; and wherein theenzymes comprise glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconatedehydrogenase, ribose 5-phosphate isomerase, ribulose 5-phosphate3-epimerase, transketolase, transaldolase, triose phosphate isomerase,aldolase, fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, phosphoglucose isomerase, and anenzyme capable of oxidizing NADH or a biomimic thereof.

In some embodiments, the system comprises a hexose or a pentose sugar ora mixture thereof as the sugar. In some embodiments of the system, theenzyme capable of oxidizing NADH or a reduced biomimic thereof isdiaphorase.

In some embodiments, the system further comprises one or more of vitaminK₃, benzyl viologen, or a biomimetic thereof. In some embodiments, oneor more of vitamin K₃, benzyl viologen, or a biomimetic thereof isimmobilized on the anode surface. In other embodiments, one or more ofvitamin K₃, benzyl viologen, or a biomimetic thereof is free in theanode compartment.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS/FIGURES

These drawings illustrate certain aspects of some of the embodiments ofthe present invention, and should not be used to limit or define theinvention.

FIG. 1 shows energy density comparison. Panel A is a graph showing acomparison of energy storage densities of various fuels and batteries.Panel B is a graph showing a comparison of energy storage densities ofhydrogen storage techniques. Panel C is a graph showing a comparison ofenergy storage densities of rechargeable batteries.

FIG. 2 shows comparison of a directed methanol fuel cell (DMFC) and anenzymatic fuel cell (EFC) fueled by sugars. Panel A is a schematicdiagram of a typical DMFC. Panel B is a schematic diagram of a typicalEFC that can completely oxidize a sugar (CH₂O) through syntheticenzymatic pathways.

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram showing the operation of sugar batteriescontaining two synthetic pathways that are capable of completelyoxidizing six-carbon sugars from G-6-P which is generated from starch orglucose.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram showing operation of sugar batteries thatare capable of generating glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) from six-carbonsugars other than starch or glucose, such as cellulose, cellodextrin,cellobiose, sucrose, maltose, lactose, lactose, mannose, or fructose.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram showing the operation of sugar batteriesthat are capable of generating xylulose 5-Phosphate (X5P) from xylose byusing ATP or polyphosphate.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram showing supplementary pathways that canregenerate ATP by using low-cost polyphosphate.

FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram showing structures of NADH and itsbiomimics (NMN and NR) and BCP and its analogue alternatives(biomimics).

FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary enzymatic fuel cell (PanelA, a tested fuel cell; Panel B, enzymes and mediators on anode).

FIG. 9—Panel A is a graph showing power density versus current densityof a sugar battery using G6PDH; G6PDH and 6PGDH; and the entire pathway.Panel B is a graph showing current generation curve versus time and theFaraday efficiency curve for complete oxidation.

FIG. 10 comprises graphs showing profiles for the optimization of poweroutputs of sugar-powered EFC (Panels A-E) and continuous outputs ofpower and current of 13-enzyme EFC powered by maltodextrin at anexternal load of 150Ω at room temperature (Panel F). Panel A, loading ofCNT on each carbon paper; Panel B, number of carbon paper; Panel C,enzyme loading; Panel D, temperature; and Panel E, scanning rate.

FIG. 11—Panel A is Geobacillus stearothermophilus glucose 6-phosphatedehydrogenase (GsG6PDH) homology structure. Panel B shows NAD-bindingsites in GsG6PDH.

FIG. 12 shows a pathway for engineered GsG6PDH working on naturalcofactors and biomimetic cofactors (biomimics) with key amino acidmutagenesis.

FIG. 13—Panel A shows a schematic of electrodes with (1) enzymesimmobilized by tetrabutylammomium bromide (TBAB)-modified nafion polymerentrapped immobilization, (2) enzymes immobilized by covalent bondedcarbon nanotube (CNT) immobilization, and (3) non-immobilized enzymes.Panel B is a graph showing a profile for voltage versus current densityfor the three electrodes. Panel C shows a profile for power versuscurrent density.

FIG. 14 is a schematic diagram showing the operation of an enzymaticfuel cell for complete oxidation of maltodextrin. The enzymes in the EFCare: #1 αGP, α-glucan phosphorylase; #2 PGM, phosphoglucomutase; #3G6PDH, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase; #4 6PGDH, 6-phosphogluconatedehydrogenase; #5 RPI, ribose 5-phosphate isomerase; #6 Ru5PE, ribulose5-phosphate 3-epimerase; #7 TK, transketolase; #8 TAL, transaldolase; #9TIM, triose phosphate isomerase; #10 ALD, aldolase; #11 FBP, fructose1,6-bisphosphatase; #12 PGI, phosphoglucose isomerase; and #13 DI,diaphorase. The key metabolites are glucose 1-phosphate (G1P), glucose6-phosphate (G6P), 6-phosphogluconate (6PG), and ribulose 5-phosphate(Ru5P). P_(i) denotes inorganic phosphate and VK₃, denotes vitamin K₃.

FIG. 15 is a graph showing a comparison of energy densities amongbatteries and enzymatic fuel cells.

FIG. 16 is a SDS-PAGE analysis of purified enzymes. Lane 1: αGP,α-glucan phosphorylase; Lane 2: PGM, phosphoglucomutase; Lane 3: G6PDH,glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase; Lane 4: 6PGDH, 6-phosphogluconatedehydrogenase; Lane 5: RPI, ribose 5-phosphate isomerase; Lane 6: Ru5PE,ribulose 5-phosphate 3-epimerase; Lane 7: TK, transketolase; Lane 8:TAL, transaldolase; Lane 9: TIM, triose phosphate isomerase; Lane 10:ALD, aldolase; Lane 11: FBP, fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase; Lane 12: PGI,phosphoglucose isomerase; and DI, diaphorase.

FIG. 17 shows a scheme (Panel A) and photo (Panel B) of an EFC set.

FIG. 18 is a graph showing a profile of electric charge and NADHconsumption over time.

FIG. 19 is a graph showing a profile of current generation with orwithout maltodextrin.

FIG. 20 is a photo of a cuvette-based EFC, showing its front view (PanelA) and two EFCs connected in series to power up a digital clock (PanelB) and a LED (Panel C).

FIG. 21 is a graph showing the effect of sugar refilling onnon-immobilized EFC. The initial maltodextrin concentration was 0.01 mM.At Point 1 and 2, the same amount of fresh substrate was added into theEFC.

FIG. 22—Panel A is a graph showing thermostability and refillability ofthe entire pathway EFC (with all 13 enzymes). The current generationcurve is of the 13-enzyme EFC working on 0.1 mM maltodextrin at roomtemperature. At Point 1 (around 210 h), the new enzyme mixture and 1 mMmaltodextrin was added where the substrate was consumed nearlycompletely at round 200 h. At Point 2, the new VK₃-containing anode wasused to replace the old one. Panel B is a graph showing enhancement ofthe stability of non-immobilized enzymes in an EFC by the addition of 1g/L BSA and 0.1% (wt/v) Triton X-100.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides a method for converting chemical energystored in sugars to electricity. In certain embodiments, the presentinvention provides synthetic (artificial) enzymatic pathways forconverting chemical energy from six-carbon sugars and five-carbon sugarsto electricity using enzymatic fuel cells. In a preferred embodiment ofthe present invention, sugar batteries are used to convert the chemicalenergy to electricity. One of the many advantages of the presentinvention is that the sugar batteries disclosed herein have an energydensity that may be more than about 10-fold higher than the energydensities of the current enzymatic fuel cells and rechargeablebatteries. Other advantages of the sugar batteries of the presentinvention include, but are not limited to, the utilization of low-costfeedstock, modest reaction conditions and low-cost catalysts (e.g.,enzymes), high energy storage density, low safety concern (e.g., neitherexplosion nor flammability), abundant supply of all materials andcatalysts, fast refilling, zero carbon emissions, environmentallyfriendly, and usability in a wide variety of applications.

Another advantage of the present invention is that, unlike primary andsecondary batteries that suffer from low energy storage densities, thefuel cells described herein have much higher densities. Enzymatic fuelcells are a type of fuel cells that can utilize enzymes to convertchemical energy stored in chemical compounds to electricity. Six-carbonsugar monomers (e.g., glucose, fructose, mannose) and their derivatives(e.g., maltose, cellodextrins, sucrose, lactose, cellobiose,cellodextrin, cellulose, starch) and xylose and its derivatives (e.g.,hemicellulose, xylan) are the most abundant carbohydrates and thereforea great source of energy. The present invention provides a number ofnovel non-natural synthetic enzymatic pathways that can convert thesesix-carbon sugars and five-carbon sugars to electricity through partialor complete oxidation mediated by a number of cascades of enzymes.Because the sugar batteries have a high energy storage density, arebiodegradable and quickly refillable, and have a low explosion risk,they can successfully replace most primary batteries, secondarybatteries and direct methanol fuel cells.

The preferred fuels for sugar batteries include six-carbon sugars frommonosaccharides (e.g., glucose, mannose, fructose, and galactose),oligosaccharides (e.g., maltose, maltodextrins, sucrose, cellobiose,cellodextrins, lactose), and polysaccharides (e.g., cellulose, starch,and glycogen), D-xylose, L-arabinose, hemicellulose, xylan, and anycombinations thereof. The output is electricity. A typical scheme of anexemplary sugar battery according to embodiments of the presentinvention is shown in FIG. 3 and FIG. 4. The present invention providesseveral new cascade enzymatic pathways that are capable of convertingthe chemical energy stored in six-carbon sugars to electricity usingenzymatic fuel cells.

Starch is the most widely used energy storage compound in nature. Thecatabolism of starch allows for a slow and nearly constant release ofchemical energy in living cells that is different from its monomerglucose. Maltodextrin, a partially hydrolyzed starch fragment, is asuperior fuel to glucose in EFCs, because maltodextrin has 11% higherenergy density than glucose. Maltodextrin is also less costly becauseglucose is the main product of its enzymatic hydrolysis, and low-costlinear maltodextrin can be made from cellulose. An equivalent weight ofmaltodextrin has a much lower osmotic pressure than glucose. Moreover,it can provide slowly-metabolized glucose 1-phosphate for more stableelectricity generation in closed EFCs. Maltodextrin has been used as afuel for EFCs, but only two electrons could be generated per glucoseunit before this invention.

Pathways

The inventive pathways include specific enzymes for converting thestored energy of specific sugars into useful electricity. A completeutilization of the sugar fuel is possible by oxidizing G6P (glucose6-phosphate) in the presence of NAD⁺ or a biomimetic analogue (orbiomimic) thereof. The advantages of the embodiments of the presentinvention include the ability to use a sugar as a starting material, andnot G6P and X5P (xylulose 5-phosphate) directly. This provides for alow-cost source of G6P and X5P. The starting material (e.g., sugar as afuel) is efficiently used, which was not achieved previously, by using amodified pentose phosphate pathway along with enzymes from theglycolysis and gluconeogenesis pathways coupled with a completeconversion of NAD⁺ or a biomimic thereof into NADH or a biomimic thereof

In some embodiments, the present invention provides a novel combinationof enzymatic pathways for sugar batteries. In these embodiments, thenovel synthetic enzymatic pathways contain three parts, referred toherein as modules. Module one generates low-cost glucose 6-phosphatefrom any six-carbon sugar. Module two allows NADH or a biomimic thereofto be generated from a modified pentose phosphate pathway together withenzymes from the glycolysis and gluconeogenesis pathways (G6P+7H₂O+12NAD⁺→12 NADH+12H⁺+6 CO₂). Module 3 allows reduced NADH or a biomimicthereof to be oxidized on the surface of an anode for electrongeneration. FIG. 3 and Table 1 below demonstrate such a scheme.

TABLE 1 Modified Pentose Phosphate Pathway No. Enzyme Name E.C. Reaction3 NAD-based glucose 6- 1.1.1.49 G6P + NAD⁺ → 6PG + phosphatedehydrogenase NADH (G6PDH) 4 NAD-based 6-phospho- 1.1.1.44 6PG + H₂O +NAD⁺ gluconic dehydrogenase → Ru5P + NADH + CO₂ (6PGDH) 5 ribulose5-phosphate 5.1.3.1 Ru5P → X5P 3-epimerase (Ru5PE) 6 ribose 5-phosphate5.3.1.6 Ru5P → R5P isomerase (R5PI) 7 transketolase (TK) 2.2.1.1 X5P +R5P → S7P + G3P X5P + E4P → F6P + G3P 8 transaldolase (TAL) 2.2.1.2S7P + G3P → F6P + E4P 9 triose-phosphate isomerase 5.3.1.1 G3P → DHAP(TPI) 10 aldolase (ALD) 4.1.2.13 G3P + DHAP → FDP 11 fructose1,6-bisphosphate 3.1.3.11 FDP + H₂O → F6P + Pi (FBP) 12 phosphoglucoseisomerase 5.3.1.9 F6P → G6P (PGI)

In one embodiment, Module I contains a single pathway as shown below. Inanother embodiment, Module I may contain a combination of pathways in anenzymatic fuel cell. The present invention provides pathways that cangenerate G6P from any monomer hexose without consumption of costly ATPby using polyphosphate as a phosphate donor, followed by itsregeneration.

Pathway 1

In one embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 1. Pathway 1starts with glucose, which can be generated by simple hydrolysis orphosphorolysis of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. G6P can begenerated as “Glucose+(P_(i))_(n)→G6P+(P_(i))_(n-1)” bypolyphosphate-glucokinase (PPGK, EC 2.7.1.6, polyphosphate-glucosephosphotransferase) or “Glucose+ATP→G6P+ADP” by hexokinase (HK,EC2.7.1.1), where ATP can be generated at the cost of polyphosphate asADP+(P_(i))_(n)→ATP+(P_(i))_(n-1) by polyphosphate kinase (PPK, EC2.7.4.1) or a combination of polyphosphate:AMP phosphotransferase (PPT,EC 2.7.4.B2) and polyphosphate-independent adenylate kinase (ADK, EC2.7.4.3). After the complete oxidation of G6P, free phosphate can beregenerated to produce polyphosphate by chemical or biological means.

Pathway 2

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 2. Pathway 2starts with fructose. The fructose can be converted into glucose byglucose (xylose) isomerase (EC 5.3.1.5), and then glucose is processedthrough the above pathway (Pathway 1). In another embodiment, glucosemay be generated by coupled enzymes sorbitol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.14)and aldehyde reductase (EC 1.1.1.21).

Pathway 3

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 3. Pathway 3starts with mannose. In one embodiment, mannose can be converted tofructose by mannose isomerase (EC 5.3.1.7), and then fructose isprocessed through Pathway 2. In another embodiment, mannose can beconverted to fructose 6-phosphate by two enzymes (polyphosphate-glucosemannose phosphotransferase, EC 2.7.1.63 and phosphomannose isomerase, EC5.3.1.8), and then fructose 6-phosphate is processed through a modifiedpentose phosphate pathway (modified PPP) together with enzymes from theglycolysis and gluconeogenesis pathways. In another embodiment, fructose6-phospshate is generated by using three enzymes—polyphosphate kinase(EC 2.7.4.1), hexokinase (EC 2.7.1.1) and phosphomannose isomerase (EC5.3.1.8), resulting in the overall reaction ofmannose+(P_(i))_(n)→fructose 6-phosphate+(P_(i))_(n-1).

Pathway 4

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 4. Pathway 4starts with galactose. Five enzymes together convert galactose toglucose 6-phospshate in the overall reaction of:galactose+(P_(i))_(n)→glucose 6-phosphate+(P_(i))_(n-1). These fiveenzymes are polyphosphate kinase (EC 2.7.4.1), galactokinase (EC2.7.16), UDP-glucose-hexose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase (EC2.7.7.12), UDP-galactose-4-epimerase (EC 5.1.3.2), andphosphoglucomutase (EC 5.4.2.2).

Polyphosphate regeneration can be performed by chemical and/orbiological approaches. Free phosphate ion can be precipitated by forminginsoluble salts including, but not limited to, Mg₃(PO4)₂ and Ca₃(PO4)₂.Polyphosphate can be made by adding concentrated H₂SO₄, followed byheating. Alternatively, Microlunatus phosphovorus takes up freephosphate and accumulates polyphosphate intracellularly underglucose-limited conditions.

The present invention provides pathways that can generate G6P fromoligosaccharide without consumption of costly ATP by using polyphosphateand its regeneration and substrate phophosphorylation by usingrespective phosphorylases.

Pathway 5

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 5. Pathway 5starts with maltodextrin. Maltodextrin with DP (Degree ofPolymerization)=n can be converted to (n−1) glucose-1-phosphate andglucose by maltodextrin phosphorylase (EC 2.4.1.1) and maltosephosphorylase (EC 2.4.1.8). Glucose 1-phosphate is produced byphosphoglucomutase (EC 5.4.2.2) followed by the PPP with enzymes fromthe glycolysis and gluconeogenesis pathways, and glucose is processedthrough Pathway 1.

Pathway 6

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 6. Pathway 6starts with sucrose. Sucrose can be converted to glucose 1-phosphate andfructose by sucrose phosphorylase (EC2.4.1.7). The fructose and glucose1-phosphate may be processed through Pathway 2 and by phosphoglucomutase(EC 5.4.2.2), respectively.

Pathway 7

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 7. Pathway 7starts with water-soluble cellodextrins, including, but not limited to,cellobiose and cellodextrins. Cellodextrins with DP=n can be convertedto (n−1) glucose 1-phosphate and glucose by cellobiose phosphorylase (EC2.4.1.20) and cellodextrin phosphorylase (EC 2.4.1.49). The remainingpathway may be the same as Pathway 5.

The present invention provides various exemplary pathways that cangenerate monomeric hexoses from oligosaccharides or polysaccharidesafter hydrolysis, which are then processed by Pathways 1-7.

Pathway 8

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 8. Pathway 8starts with sucrose. Sucrose can be hydrolyzed to glucose and fructoseby sucrase (EC 3.2.1.10). The products may enter Pathways 1 and 2,respectively.

Pathway 9

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 9. Pathway 9starts with lactose. In one embodiment, lactose can be hydrolyzed toglucose and galactose by lactase (EC 3.2.1.23). In another embodiment,lactose can be phosphorolyzed to galactose 1-phosphate and glucose bylactose phosphorylase. The products may enter Pathways 1 and 4.

Pathway 10

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 10. Pathway 10starts with starch, glycogen, maltose or maltodextrins. The starch orglycogen can be partially hydrolyzed to maltodextrins and maltose byusing alpha-amylase (EC 3.2.1.1) and other starch hydrolyzing enzymes,such as isoamylase (EC3.2.1.68), pullulanase (EC3.2.1.41). The starch,maltose or maltodextrin can be hydrolyzed to glucose by glucoamylase (EC3.2.1.3), alpha-amylase (EC 3.2.1.1), and other starch hydrolyzingenzymes. Glucose may enter Pathway 1.

Pathway 11

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 11. Pathway 11starts with insoluble cellulose or pretreated biomass. The insolublecellulose or pretreated biomass can be hydrolyzed to solublecelldoextrins by individual endoglucanase (EC 3.2.1.4) and/orcellobiohydrolase (EC 3.2.1.74) or a combination thereof. The productsof soluble cellodextrins and glucose may enter Pathways 1 and 7.

The present invention provides pathways that can generate glucose1-phosphate from polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, or glycogen) andmay be phosphorolyzed by their respective glucan phosphorylases andaccessory enzymes.

Pathway 12

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 12. Pathway 12starts with linear starch (amylose) or their short-fragments with DP=n.(n−1) glucose 1-phosphate and glucose may be generated from starch andfree phosphate by starch phosphorylase (EC 2.4.1.1) and maltosephosphorylase (EC 2.4.18). After the conversion of glucose 1-phosphateto glucose 6-phosphate by phosphoglucomutase, G6P enters the PPP forelectricity generation.

Pathway 13

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 13. Pathway 13starts with branched starch (amylopectin) or glycogen. Most glucoseunits in the linear chains may be removed to generate glucose1-phosphate by starch or glycogen phosphorylase (EC 2.4.1.1). At the endof branch points, starch debranching enzymes or pullulanases (EC3.2.1.41) can be used to enhance further conversion. The minor product,glucose, can be used to generate G6P through Pathway 1.

The present invention provides pathways that utilize xylose and ATP orpolyphosphate to generate xylulose 5-phosphate, which will be convertedto G6P through the pentose phosphate pathway and enzymes in glycolysisand gluconeogenesis. Then G6P is consumed to generate NADH or a biomimicthereof through Pathway 1.

Pathway 14

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 14. Pathway 14starts with xylose. Xylose is converted to xylulose by xylose isomerase(XI, EC 5.3.1.5), and then to xylulose 5-phosphate by xylulokinase (XK,EC 2.7.1.17) by using ATP. ATP can be regenerated asADP+(P_(i))_(n)→ATP+(P_(i))_(n-1) by polyphosphate kinase (PPK, EC2.7.4.1) or a combination of polyphosphate:AMP phosphotransferase (PPT,EC 2.7.4.B2) and polyphosphate-independent adenylate kinase (ADK, EC2.7.4.3). The product xylulose 5-phosphate can be converted to G6Pthrough the non-oxidative pentose phosphate pathway. Then G6P isconsumed to generate NADH or a biomimic thereof through Pathway 1.

Pathway 15

In another embodiment, the pathway is provided as Pathway 15. Pathway 15starts with xylose. Xylose is converted to xylulose by xylose isomerase(XI, EC 5.3.1.5), and then to xylulose 5-phosphate by polyphosphatexylulokinase (PPXK, EC NA) by using polyphosphate. The product xylulose5-phosphate can be converted to G6P through the non-oxidative pentosephosphate pathway. Then G6P is consumed to generate NADH or a biomimicthereof through Pathway 1.

Xylulokinase is an enzyme responsible for converting xylulose toxylulose-5-phophosphate with help of ATP. We discovered a wild-type T.maritima xylulokinase has a promiscuous activity by utilizingpolyphosphate rather than ATP as a phosphate donor. As a result, Pathway15 can work directly.

In some embodiments, the synthetic pathway is comprised of fourfunctional modules: glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) generation frommaltodextrin mediated by alpha-glucan phosphorylase andphosphoglucomutase (Equation 1); 2 NADH generated from G6P mediated bytwo NAD-dependent G6PDH and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGDH)(Equation 2); NADH electro-oxidation through DI to VK₃ that generates 2electrons per NADH (Equation 3); and 5/6 moles of G6P regeneration fromone mole of ribulose 5-phosphate via a hybrid pathway comprising enzymesin the pentose phosphate, glycolysis, and gluconeogenesis pathways(Equation 4). The overall anode reaction for the combination ofEquations 1-4 approximately results in Equation 5. Clearly, each glucoseunit from maltodextrin can generate 24 electrons on the anode via thisde novo pathway (Equation 5).(C₆H₁₀O₅)_(n)+P_(i)→G6P+(C₆H₁₀O₅)_(n-1)  [1]G6P+H₂O+2NAD⁺→ribulose-5-phosphate+CO₂+2NADH+2H⁺  [2]NADH+H⁺→2H⁺+2e ⁻  [3]6ribulose-5-phosphate+H₂O→5G6P+phosphate  [4]C₆H₁₀O₅+7H₂O→24e ⁻+6CO₂+24H⁺(anode compartment)  [5]

The pathway utilizes two NAD-dependent G6PDH and 6PGDH to generate NADHdifferently from natural NADP-dependent enzymes in the pentose phosphatepathway used for anabolism. The above pathway does not require eitherATP or CoA, which are very costly and unstable in EFCs. Moreover,phosphate ions can be recycled to maintain constant pH and ionconcentrations. This cyclic pathway design is different from the linearpathways typically used in EFCs.

Enzymes

In some embodiments, enzymes are immobilized using a variety of methods,including gel entrapment, physical adsorption, chemical covalentlinking, and immobilization with nanoparticles and nanotubes. Thesemethods originated from biosensors that focus on achieving reproduciblesignals by immobilizing commercially available mesophilic enzymes toenhance their stability without concern for slow reaction rates.

However, enzymes immobilized on the surface of solid electrodesgenerally exhibit much lower activities (e.g., 1%) due to enzymedeactivation and poor fuel transfer from the bulk solutions to theimmobilized enzymes. To achieve constant high-power EFCs, we consideredan alternative strategy for mediating electron transfer in the EFCswithout immobilizing the enzymes. Our strategy retains the enzymaticactivity and facilitates mass transfer by immobilizing the electronmediator (that is, vitamin K₃ (VK₃)) on the surface of the electrode(FIG. 13, Panel C).

Two typical enzyme immobilization approaches for EFCs are polymer matrixentrapment in a quaternary tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB)-modifiedNafion and covalent binding on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) (FIG. 13, PanelsA and B).

The stability of enzymes can be addressed by the use of thermoenzymes.The thermoenzymes may be produced in E. coli and purified by threemethods: heat precipitation, His-tag/nickel charged resin, andadsorption of cellulose-binding module tagged proteins on a cellulosicadsorbent (FIG. 16 and Table 2). Relatively non-stable thermoenzymes,such as PGI, αGP, and PGM, isolated from thermophiles can be replacedwith enzymes from hyperthermophiles or engineered mutants enzymesgenerated by protein engineering (i.e., rational design, directedevolution or a combination of methods).

The half-life time of the non-immobilized enzymes may be increased byadding bovine serum albumin and 0.1% Triton X-100. (FIG. 22, Panel B)

Electron Mediators

In some embodiments, an electron mediator is immobilized on the surfaceof the anode.

In a particular embodiment, the electron mediator is vitamin K₃.

In some embodiments, an electron mediator is not immobilized on thesurface of the anode. In other embodiments, an electron mediator is freein the anode compartment.

In a particular embodiment, the electron mediator is benzyl viologen.

Sugar Batteries or Sugar EFCs

In some embodiments, the EFC is a cuvette-based EFC (FIG. 20). Becausethe weight of the combined electrode materials, the plastic cuvette, andthe membrane electrode assembly accounts for approximately 20% of theentire device weight. Such biobatteries may be regarded asenvironmentally friendly disposable primary batteries because they havebetter energy densities and less environmental impact. In someembodiments, a stack of two cuvette-based EFCs can power a digital clockand a LED light (FIG. 20).

In some embodiments, the biobatteries equipped with non-immobilizedenzyme cascades might be refilled by the addition of the sugar solutionbecause the sole gaseous product (CO₂) can be easily released from theanode compartment and the non-immobilized enzymes are not washed out ofthe EFCs. In other embodiments, the EFCs are refilled by the addition ofthe substrate and enzyme mixture.

Alternative Uses:

This invention can be used to remove extra reduced NADH or an equivalent(biomimic) thereof in a cell-free biocatalysis and make cofactorbalanced.

EXAMPLES Materials and Methods

Chemicals

All chemicals, including maltodextrin (dextrose equivalent of 4.0-7.0,i.e., a measured degree of polymerization of 19), vitamin K₃ (VK₃),nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD, including both the oxidized form(NAD⁺) and the reduced form (NADH)), poly-L-lysine (PLL, MW ˜70-150kDa), dithiothreitol (DTT),1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC), andN-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) were reagent grade or higher and purchasedfrom Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, Mo., USA) or Fisher Scientific(Pittsburgh, Pa., USA), unless otherwise noted. Restriction enzymes, T4ligase, and Phusion DNA polymerase were purchased from New EnglandBiolabs (Ipswich, Mass., USA). Oligonucleotides were synthesized eitherby Integrated DNA Technologies (Coraville, Iowa, USA) or FisherScientific. The carbon paper (AvCarb MGL200) used in the anodes waspurchased from Fuel Cell Earth (Stoneham, Mass., USA). Membraneelectrode assemblies (MEAs) consisting of Nafion 212 membranes and acarbon cloth cathode modified with 0.5 mg cm⁻² Pt were purchased fromFuel Cell Store (San Diego, Calif., USA). COOH-functionalized multi-wallcarbon nanotubes (CNTs) with an outer diameter of <8 nm and a length of10-30 μm were purchased from CheapTubes.com (Brattleboro, Va., USA).Regenerated amorphous cellulose used in enzyme purification was preparedfrom Avicel PH105 (FMC, Philadelphia, Pa., USA) through its dissolutionand regeneration, as described elsewhere. Escherichia coli Top10 wasused as a host cell for DNA manipulation and E. coli BL21 Star (DE3)(Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif., USA) was used as a host cell forrecombinant protein expression. Luria-Bertani (LB) medium includingeither 100 mg L⁻¹ ampicillin or 50 mg L⁻¹ kanamycin was used for E. colicell growth and recombinant protein expression.

Production and Purification of Recombinant Enzymes

The E. coli BL21 Star (DE3) strain harboring a protein expressionplasmid was incubated in a 1-L Erlenmeyer flask with 250 mL of the LBmedium containing either 100 mg L⁻¹ ampicillin or 50 mg L⁻¹ kanamycin.Cells were grown at 37° C. with rotary shaking at 250 rpm until theabsorbance of the cell culture at 600 nm reached 0.6-0.8. Proteinexpression was induced by adding 100 μM ofisopropyl-β-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) during an 18° C. overnightincubation. The cells were harvested by centrifugation at 4° C. andwashed once with 20 mM HEPES (pH 7.5) containing 0.3 M NaCl. The cellpellets were resuspended in the same buffer and lysed byultra-sonication (Fisher Scientific Sonic Dismembrator Model 500; 5-spulse on and off, total 300 s at 50% amplitude). After centrifugation,the target proteins in the supernatants were purified.

Three approaches shown in (Table 2) were used to purify the variousrecombinant proteins. His-tagged proteins were purified by the ProfinityIMAC Ni-Charged Resin (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif., USA). Fusion proteinscontaining a cellulose-binding-module (CBM) and self-cleavage inteinwere purified through high-affinity adsorption on a large surface-arearegenerated amorphous cellulose. Heat precipitation at 80° C. for 20 minwas used to purify RPI, Ru5PE, TIM, and ALD. The purity of therecombinant proteins was examined by sodium dodecyl sulfatepolyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE, (FIG. 16).

TABLE 2 Information of recombinant thermophilic enzymes Sp. Act.* Load #Enzyme EC ORF Purification (U mg⁻¹) (U/EFC) 1 α-Glucan 2.4.1.1 Cthe0357His/NTA 0.2 5 phosphorylase (αGP) 2 Phosphoglucomutase 5.4.2.2 Cthe1265CBM/intein 151 5 (PGM) 3 Glucose-6-phosphate 1.1.1.49 GenBank His/NTA4.0 5 Dehydrogenase accession# (G6PDH) JQ040549 4 6-phosphogluconate1.1.1.44 Moth1283 His/NTA 2.8 5 Dehydrogenase (6PGDH) 5Ribose-5-phosphate 5.3.1.6 Tm1080 Heat 60 1 Isomerase (RPI)precipitation 6 Ribulose-5-phosphate 5.1.3.1 Tm1718 Heat 0.8 13-Epimerase (RuSPE) precipitation 7 Transketolase (TK) 2.2.1.1 Ttc1896His/NTA 1.3 1 8 Transaldolase (TAL) 2.2.1.2 Tm0295 His/NTA 4.1 1 9Triosephosphate 5.3.1.1 Ttc0581 Heat 102 1 Isomerase (TIM) precipitation10 Fructose 1,6- 4.1.2.13 Ttc1414 Heat 2.9 1 bisphosphate aldolaseprecipitation (ALD) 11 Fructose 1,6- 3.1.3.11 Tm1415 CBM/intein 3.0 1bisphosphatase (FBP) 12 Phosphoglucose 5.3.1.9 Cthe0217 CBM/intein 201 1Isomerase (PGI) 13 Diaphorase (DI) 1.6.99.3 GenBank His/NTA 896 4accession# JQ040550

Measurement of Enzyme Activity

Clostridium thermocellum alpha-glucan phosphorylase (αGP) activity wasassayed in 100 mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.5) containing 1 mM MgCl₂, 5 mM DTT,30 mM maltodextrin, and 10 mM sodium phosphate at 23° C. for 5 min. Thereaction was stopped by adding HClO₄ followed by neutralization withKOH. Glucose 1-phosphate (G1P) was measured using a glucosehexokinase/G6PDH assay kit (Pointe Scientific, Canton, Mich., USA)supplemented with phosphoglucomutase (PGM).

C. thermocellum phophoglucomutase (PGM) activity was measured in 100 mMHEPES buffer (pH 7.5) containing 5 mM MgCl₂, 0.5 mM MnCl₂, and 5 mM G1Pat 23° C. for 5 min. The glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) product wasdetermined using a hexokinase/G6PDH assay kit.

Geobacillus stearothermophilus glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH)activity was assayed in 100 mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.5) containing 100 mMNaCl, 2 mM G6P, 2 mM NAD⁺, 5 mM MgCl₂, and 0.5 mM MnCl₂ at 23° C. Anincrease in the absorbance due to the formation of NADH was measured at340 nm.

Morella thermoacetica 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGDH) activitywas measured in a 100 mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.5) containing 2 mM6-phosphogluconate, 2 mM NAD⁺, 5 mM MgCl₂, and 0.5 mM MnCl₂ at 23° C.for 5 min.

Thermotoga maritima ribose-5-phosphate isomerase (RPI) activity wasassayed using a modified Dische's cysteine-carbazole method.

T. maritima ribulose-5-phosphate epimerase (Ru5PE) activity wasdetermined on a substrate of D-ribulose 5-phosphate as describedpreviously.

Thermus thermophilus transketolase (TK) activity was measured in a 50 mMTris/HCl (pH 7.5) buffer containing 0.8 mM D-xylulose 5-phosphate, 0.8mM D-ribose 5-phosphate, 5 mM MgCl₂, 0.5 mM thiamine pyrophosphate, 0.15mM NADH, 60 U mL⁻¹ of TIM and, 20 U mL⁻¹ of glycerol 3-phosphatedehydrogenase. The reaction was started with the addition of TK at 23°C. The D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate product was quantified through theconsumption of NADH measured at 340 nm for 5 min.

T. maritima transaldolase (TAL) activity was assayed as reportedpreviously in Huang et al., A thermostable recombinant transaldolasewith high activity over a broad pH range. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol.93: 2403-2410 (2012).

T. thermophilus triosephosphate isomerase (TIM) activity was determinedin 50 mM Tris/HCl (pH 7.5) containing 5 mM MgCl₂, 0.5 mM MnCl₂, 0.5 mgmL⁻¹ BSA, 20 U mL⁻¹ of glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and 0.25 mMNADH.

T. thermophilus fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase (ALD) was assayed ina 50 mM Tris/HCl Buffer (pH 7.5) at 23° C. with 1.9 mM fructose1,6-biphosphate as a substrate. The glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate productwas quantified with 0.15 mM NADH, 60 U mL⁻¹ of TIM, and 20 U mL⁻¹ ofglycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase at 340 nm.

T. maritima fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase (FBP) activity was determinedbased on the release of phosphate.

C. thermocellum phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI) activity was assayed at23° C. in 100 mM HEPES (pH 7.5) containing 10 mM MgCl₂, 0.5 mM MnCl₂,and 5 mM fructose 6-phosphate. After 3 minutes, the reaction was stoppedwith the addition of HClO₄ and neutralized with KOH. The G6P product wasanalyzed at 37° C. with a hexokinase/G6PDH assay kit.

G. stearothermophilus diaphorase (DI) activity was assayed in 10 mMphosphate buffered saline solution containing 0.16 mM NADH and 0.1 mMdichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) at 23° C. A decrease in the absorbanceat 600 nm due to the consumption of DCPIP was measured using aspectrometer.

Activities of the G6PDH and DI immobilized on the carbon paperelectrodes were assayed under the same conditions as for the freeenzymes. The reactions were started by immersing the electrodes in thesubstrate solution at 23° C. After removing the electrodes from thereactions, the changes in the absorbance in the reaction solutions weremeasured as described for the G6PDH and DI assays.

Anode Preparation

The air-breathing enzymatic fuel cell apparatus is shown in FIG. 17. Thereaction volume of the anode compartment was 15 mL. The electrolyte wasdeoxygenated by flushing with ultra-pure nitrogen for a half hour. Theelectrolyte was mixed using a magnetic stir bar at 600 rpm. The Nafion212 membrane was used to separate the anode and the cathode whosesurface was coated with 0.5 mg cm⁻² Pt. The anode compartment was aglass electrolyte container equipped with a rubber stopper for sealingthe anode compartment.

Two enzyme immobilization methods were used to prepare the anodesequipped with the immobilized enzymes.

Method 1 was based on the entrapment of enzymes into a quaternaryammonium bromide salt modified Nafion. The casting solution mixture wasprepared by adding 39 mg of tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB) with 1 mLof 5% Nafion 1100 EW suspension (Ion Power, Inc., New Castle, Del.,USA). After drying overnight, the mixture was washed with 3.5 mL of 18MΩ deionized water and re-suspended in 1 mL of isopropanol. The enzymesolution mixture consisted of 1 unit of G6PDH, 40 units of DI, 1 mMNAD⁺, and 0.29 M VK₃. The carbon paper anode was covered by a mixture of100 μL of the casting solution and 100 μL of the enzyme solution anddried at room temperature.

Method 2 was based on covalent bond linkage between the enzymes and thecarbon nanotubes (CNTs). A 10 μL volume of a 2% wt/v PLL solution wasused to coat the carbon paper, followed by addition of 20 μL of 25 mMEDC. Meanwhile, 2.5% wt/v COOH-functionalized CNTs were suspended in a50% ethanol solution and sonicated for 30 min. The carbon paper was thentreated with 40 μL of the CNT-containing solution and dried at roomtemperature. Another 10 μL of 400 mM EDC and 10 μL of 100 mM NHS werethen added, followed by the addition of 1 unit of G6PDH, 40 units of DI,1 mM NAD⁺, and 10 μL of 0.29 M VK₃ acetone solution.

Both types of anodes with immobilized enzymes were stored in 100 mMHEPES buffer containing 2 mM NAD⁺ and 100 mM NaNO₃ at 4° C. before use.

For preparation of the non-immobilized enzyme anodes, 1 or 3 mg of CNTswere added to the surface of a 1 cm² carbon paper (AvCarb MGL200) fromFuel Cell Earth using poly-L-lysine (PLL, MW ˜70-150 kDa) as describedpreviously in Zhu et al., Deep oxidation of glucose in enzymatic fuelcells through a synthetic enzymatic pathway containing a cascade of twothermostable dehydrogenases, Biosens. Bioelectron. 36: 110-115 (2012). A10 or 30 μL solution of 0.29 M vitamin K₃ dissolved in acetone wasdeposited on the dry CNT-containing anode under a hood. After two hoursof acetone evaporation, the water-insoluble vitamin K₃ was depositedonto the anode through physical adsorption.

Electrochemical Characterization of EFCs

All electrochemical tests were performed using a 1000BMulti-Potentiostat (CH Instruments Inc., Austin, Tex., USA) interfacedto a PC. Experimental data pertaining to current and power outputs werenormalized to a 1 cm² of anode area because the reaction occurring atthe anode was the rate-limiting step and the oxidation of protonsmediated by Pt in MEAs was not rate-limiting. The measurements of opencircuit potential and linear sweep voltammetry were performed at a scanrate of 1 mV s⁻¹.

For the comparison of the power generation from the immobilized andnon-immobilized enzyme EFCs (FIG. 13), the electrolytes contained 10 mMG6P, 100 mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.5), 2 mM NAD⁺, 10 mM MgCl₂, and 0.5 mMMnCl₂. One unit of G6PDH and 40 units of DI were either immobilized onthe electrodes or dissolved in the electrolyte.

When maltodextrin was used as a substrate (FIG. 9), the electrolytescontained 100 mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.5), non-immobilized enzymes, 0.1 mMmaltodextrin, 4 mM NAD⁺, 4 mM sodium phosphate, 10 mM MgCl₂, 0.5 mMMnCl₂, 5 mM DTT, and 0.5 mM thiamine pyrophosphate at room temperature.

The one-dehydrogenase EFC contained the first three enzymes (i.e.,alpha-glucan phosphorylase, phosphoglucomutase, and glucose 6-phosphatedehydrogenase) plus DI. The two-dehydrogenase EFC contained the firstfour enzymes (i.e., alpha-glucan phosphorylase, phosphoglucomutase,glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase, and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase)plus DI. The EFC used for the complete oxidation of maltodextrincontained all thirteen enzymes. The enzyme loading conditions are shownin Table 2.

The complete oxidation of maltodextrin (0.1 mM) was measured (FIG. 9,Panel B and FIG. 19) in a 100 mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.5) containing 10 mMMgCl₂, 0.5 mM MnCl₂, 4 mM NAD⁺, 4 mM sodium phosphate, 5 mM DTT, and 0.5mM thiamine pyrophosphate. To prevent microbial contamination, 50 mg L⁻¹kanamycin, 40 mg L⁻¹ tetracycline, 40 mg L⁻¹ cycloheximide, and 0.5 gsodium azide were added. To improve the stability of the enzyme mixture,1 g L⁻¹ bovine serum albumin and 0.1% Triton X-100 were added. Theenzyme loading conditions are shown in Table 2. Amperometry wasconducted at 0 V to achieve the maximal current density. The EFC with0.2 mM G6P was run for 2 days until nearly zero current was obtained,before a solution of 0.1 mM maltodextrin (i.e., ˜1.9 mM glucose) wasadded. The complete oxidation of maltodextrin took approximately oneweek at room temperature and the remaining maltodextrin was quantifiedusing a SA-20 starch assay kit (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo., USA). TheFaraday efficiency was calculated according toF _(MD-current) =C _(total)/(Δc _(glucose unit) ×V×24×F)where F_(MD-current) is the Faraday efficiency, C_(total) is the totalcharge generated (C), Δc_(glucose unit)=c_(initial)−c_(remain) (M), V isreaction volume (L), 24 represents the 24 electrons generated perglucose unit consumed, and F is the Faraday constant. The controlexperiment without maltodextrin was also performed (FIG. 19).

To further increase the power density of the EFCs, several factors wereoptimized (FIG. 10, Panels A-E) in 100 mM HEPES (pH 7.5) buffercontaining 20 mM G6P, 10 mM MgCl₂, 0.5 mM MnCl₂, 8 mM NAD⁺, 4 mM sodiumphosphate, 0.5 mM thiamine pyrophosphate, and G6PDH. All experimentswere conducted in the following order: CNT loading (1, 3 or 5 mg perelectrode), number of electrode sheets piled up together (1, 3 or 6),enzyme loading (1, 10, or 30 units) and reaction temperature (23, 50, or65° C.).

The effect of CNTs loading on one 1 cm² carbon paper as the anode wasmeasured under the following conditions: 20 mM G6P, 1 U of G6PDH, 80 Uof DI, 100 mM HEPES (pH 7.5), 10 mM MgCl₂, 0.5 mM MnCl₂, 8 mM NAD⁺, 4 mMsodium phosphate, 0.5 mM thiamine pyrophosphate, 1 electrode, 1 mg, 3mg, or 5 mg CNTs per electrode and 23° C. The effect of the number ofthe stacked anodes made by 1 cm² carbon paper deposited with 3 mg CNTswas measured under the following conditions: 20 mM G6P, 1 U of G6PDH, 80U of DI, 100 mM HEPES (pH 7.5), 10 mM MgCl₂, 0.5 mM MnCl₂, 8 mM NAD⁺, 4mM sodium phosphate, 0.5 mM thiamine pyrophosphate, 1, 3, or 6electrodes and 23° C. The effect of G6PDH loading from 1 to 30 U in theEFC containing a stack of 6 electrodes, each of which contained 3 mgCNTs was measured under the following conditions: 20 mM G6P, 1, 10, or30 U of G6PDH, 80 U of DI, 100 mM HEPES (pH 7.5), 10 mM MgCl₂, 0.5 mMMnCl₂, 8 mM NAD⁺, 4 mM sodium phosphate, 0.5 mM thiamine pyrophosphateand 23° C. The effect of reaction temperature at 23, 50, or 65° C. inthe EFC containing a stack of 6 electrodes, each of which contained 3 mgCNTs was measured under the following conditions: 20 mM G6P, 30 U ofG6PDH, 80 U of DI, 100 mM HEPES (pH 7.5), 10 mM MgCl₂, 0.5 mM MnCl₂, 8mM NAD⁺, 4 mM sodium phosphate, and 0.5 mM thiamine pyrophosphate. InFIG. 10, Panels B-D, six 1 cm² carbon papers deposited with 3 mg CNTswere stacked together as the anode. The inset figures in FIG. 10, PanelsA and B represent zoom-in profiles.

The effect of scanning rate was also measured in the buffer (FIG. 10E).

To demonstrate the capability of the “cuvette-like” EFC that can powerup a digital clock or a LED light (FIG. 20), two windows were opened atthe sides of the cuvette. Each window was pasted with a MEA whose Nafionside faced inside the cuvette. A modified anode without the enzyme wasdipped inside the cuvette. The 3 mL of reaction solution contained 40 Uof DI, 4 U of G6PDH and 6PGDH, 100 mM G6P, 100 mM HEPES (pH 7.5), 4 mMNAD⁺, 10 mM MgCl₂, and 0.5 mM MnCl₂ at room temperature.

The sugar-refilling experiment for the non-immobilized-enzyme EFC (FIG.21) was conducted at an initial maltodextrin concentration of 0.01 mM.When the sugar in EFC was consumed completely (i.e., the current outputswere closer to zero), the concentrated maltodextrin concentration wasadded to achieve the final concentration of 0.01 mM. The maltodextrinsolutions were refilled twice.

The preliminary diagnostic experiment for the aged EFC (FIG. 22, PanelA) was run after ca. 200 hours of running when the current density wentback to nearly zero. The fresh substrate (0.1 mM maltodextrin) was addedplus the 13 enzymes with the same loading. After several hours, anewly-prepared carbon electrode deposited with VK₃ was used for testing.

To compare the stability of the immobilized and non-immobilized enzymesystems (FIG. 22, Panel B), open circuit potential and linear sweepvoltammetry were performed with the electrolyte containing 2 mM G6P, 100mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.5), 2 mM NAD⁺, 10 mM MgCl₂, 0.5 mM MnCl₂ at roomtemperature. One unit of G6PDH and 40 units of DI immobilized on theelectrode or free in the stocking solution were added. After one roundof test, the immobilized enzyme electrode was taken out and stored inthe reaction buffer without G6P at 4° C. For the non-immobilizedenzymes, the reaction solution containing the enzymes was stored at 4°C. when all G6P was consumed. In another set of the non-immobilizedenzyme reaction, 1 g/L of bovine serum albumin and 0.1% v/v Triton X-100were supplemented to increase the stability of the free enzymes.

The best EFC condition was 100 mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.5), 10 mM MgCl₂,0.5 mM MnCl₂, 4 mM NAD⁺, 0.5 mM thiamine pyrophosphate, 5 mM DTT, 15%(wt/v) maltodextrin, 40 mM sodium phosphate as substrates, and enzymeloading conditions of 30 units of #1-#4 enzymes, 10 units of #5-#12enzymes, 80 units of DI, 50 mg L⁻¹ kanamycin, 40 mg L⁻¹ tetracycline, 40mg L⁻¹ cycloheximide, and 0.5 g L⁻¹ sodium azide. For long-termnon-disruptive operation, an external resistance of 150Ω was applied.The power density was measured for 60 hours at 23° C. (FIG. 10, PanelF).

Results

Comparison of Non-immobilized and Immobilized Enzymes

To compare the EFCs equipped with non-immobilized enzymes to the twoEFCs equipped with immobilized enzymes, equivalent amounts of glucose6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) and diaphorase (DI) were used to testthe polarization and the power outputs of the EFCs forglucose-6-phosphate fuel (FIG. 13, Panel A). The experiment wasconducted under the following conditions: 1 U G6PDH, 40 U DI, 10 mM G6Pin 100 mM HEPES (pH 7.5) buffer containing 2 mM NAD⁺, 10 mM Mg²⁺, and0.5 mM Mn²⁺ at room temperature.

The mass transport region for the non-immobilized EFCs occurred athigher current densities compared to the covalent binding-based EFCs(FIG. 13, Panel B), suggesting the influence of enhanced mass transportfor the non-immobilized enzymes.

The EFC based on non-immobilized G6PDH exhibited the highest powerdensity of 0.13 mW cm⁻², three times higher than that of the covalentbinding method. The EFC based on the TBAB-modified Nafion polymerentrapment method had the lowest maximum power density of 0.0013 mWcm⁻², which was only 4% of the density for the covalent binding method.The G6PDH immobilized by Nafion polymer entrapment and the covalentbinding retained 0.2% and 6% of its non-immobilized activity,respectively. The DI immobilized by Nafion polymer entrapment and thecovalent binding retained 0.4% and 7.5% of its non-immobilized activity,respectively (Table 3). These data for enzyme activity clearly suggestthat a dramatic activity loss occurs due to enzyme immobilization. Thepower density data validate the feasibility of using non-immobilizedenzyme(s) to achieve high-power output in EFCs.

TABLE 3 Comparison of remaining activities of the immobilized enzymeswith those of non-immobilized enzymes. Polymer Covalent Non- entrappedlinking immobilized G6PDH activity 0.0080 ± 0.0004 0.23 ± 0.03 4.1 ± 0.3(U mg⁻¹) DI activity 3.3 ± 0.2 67 ± 4  896 ± 25  (U mg⁻¹)

Complete Oxidation of Maltodextrin

To release the maximum electron potential from each glucose unit (i.e.,24 per glucose), we designed a non-natural enzymatic pathway containing13 enzymes (FIG. 14). This synthetic pathway is comprised of fourfunctional modules: glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) generation frommaltodextrin mediated by alpha-glucan phosphorylase andphosphoglucomutase (Equation 1); 2 NADH generated from G6P mediated bytwo-NAD-dependent G6PDH and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGDH)(Equation 2); NADH electro-oxidation through non-immobilized DI toimmobilized VK₃ that generates 2 electrons per NADH (Equation 3); and5/6 moles of G6P regeneration from one mole of ribulose 5-phosphate viaa hybrid pathway comprised of enzymes in the pentose phosphate,glycolysis, and gluconeogenesis pathways (Equation 4). The overall anodereaction for the combination of Equations 1-4 approximately results inEquation 5. Clearly, each glucose unit from maltodextrin can generate 24electrons on the anode via this de novo pathway (Equation 5).(C₆H₁₀O₅)_(n)+P_(i)→G6P+(C₆H₁₀O₅)_(n-1)  [1]G6P+H₂O+2NAD⁺→ribulose 5-phosphate+CO₂+2NADH+2H⁻  [2]NADH+H→2H⁺+2e ⁻  [3]6 ribulose 5-phosphate+H₂O→5G6P+phosphate  [4]C₆H₁₀O₅+7H₂O→24e ⁻+6CO₂+24H⁺(anode compartment)  [5]

The pathway utilizes two NAD-dependent G6PDH and 6PGDH to generate NADHdifferently from natural NADP-dependent enzymes in the pentose phosphatepathway. The above pathway does not require either ATP or CoA, which arevery costly and unstable in EFCs. Moreover, phosphate ions can berecycled to maintain constant pH and ion concentrations. This cyclicpathway design is different from the linear pathways typically used inEFCs.

The power densities from maltodextrin fuel (i.e., 2 mM glucose units)were compared for three EFCs that used one dehydrogenase (i.e., G6PDH),two dehydrogenases (i.e., G6PDH and 6PGDH), or the entire pathway (FIG.9A). The open circuit potentials were similar for the three EFCs (˜0.7V). When only G6PDH was used, the EFC exhibited a maximum power densityof 0.011 mW cm⁻². When a second dehydrogenase (6PGDH) was added, themaximum power density increased by a factor of two, to 0.024 mW cm⁻².When eight additional enzymes were added to reconstitute the entirepathway (FIG. 14), the maximum power density increased slightly to 0.026mW cm⁻². The corresponding maximum current density was 35% higher thanthe current density of the system based on two dehydrogenases (FIG. 9A).

To quantitatively validate the complete oxidation of the glucose unitsof maltodextrin, we measured the Faraday efficiency from NADH toelectrons through the diaphorase and vitamin K₃ in the air-breathing EFC(FIG. 18). The initial composition of deoxygenated electrolyte contained0.4 U of DI, 100 mM HEPES (pH 7.5), 10 mM MgCl₂, and 0.5 mM MnCl₂.Amperometric measurement was performed to monitor current generationwith time. First, a small amount (0.2 mM) of NADH was added to start thereaction. When NADH was all consumed, the reaction system achieved anequilibrium state. Second, when another 2 mM NADH was added, currentstarted to increase with time. Samples were withdrawn from time to timeby using a syringe and the residual NADH concentration was measured by aUV spectrophotometer. Faraday efficiency of electro-enzymatic oxidationof NADH was calculated as below:F _(NADH-current) =ΔC/(Δc×V×2×F)

where F_(NADH-current) is Faraday efficiency of electro-enzymaticoxidation of NADH, ΔC is the slope of total charge increase (C), Δc isthe slope of NADH concentration decrease (M), V is reaction volume (L),2 represents 2 electrons generated per NADH consumed, F is Faradayconstant.

Under oxygen-free conditions for the anode compartment, the Faradayefficiency of the EFC was 97.6±3.0% (FIG. 18), suggesting that theelectro-enzymatic oxidation of NADH is highly efficient. Moreover, theremoval of oxygen from the anode compartment was essential for obtaininga high Faraday efficiency and preventing the non-selective oxidation ofNADH.

In a 15-mL EFC containing 13 enzymes and a low concentration ofmaltodextrin at room temperature (FIG. 9B), the current densityincreased to a peak value of 0.12 mA cm⁻² at hour 24 and then decreasedslowly due to substrate consumption. After more than 150 h, the currentoutput decreased to nearly zero. The cumulative electric chargegenerated was 48.9 C relative to the theoretical electric chargegenerated based on the consumption of the glucose units (i.e., 53.0 C,one mole of glucose unit can generate 24×96,485 C in principle). Thisresult suggests a cumulative Faraday efficiency of 92.3% with one moleof glucose generating 22.2 moles of electrons.

It was noted that the negative control (i.e., the same EFC without thesubstrate) did not generate significant current outputs (FIG. 19). TheFaraday efficiency was higher than that of the microbial fuel cell basedon glucose (83%), because cell-free biosystems do not waste organicfuels on cell growth and by-product formation, as demonstratedpreviously. Bujara et al., “Optimization of a blueprint for in vitroglycolysis by metabolic real-time analysis,” Nat. Chem. Biol. 7: 271-277(2011); Martin del Campo, J. S. et al., “High-Yield Production ofDihydrogen from Xylose by Using a Synthetic Enzyme Cascade in aCell-Free System,” Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 52: 4587-4590 (2013). Oursystem provides the first quantitative evidence for nearly 24 electronsproduced per glucose unit in an EFC. Moreover, our data suggest that wecan convert all of the chemical energy from the sugar into electricalenergy and increase the energy density of the EFC by one order ofmagnitude.

High-energy-density High-power EFCs

Power density is another important consideration in EFCs. To increasethe power density, we optimized a number of factors, including the EFCconfiguration, the enzyme loading, and the experimental conditions underwhich the non-immobilized G6PDH acts on the G6P.

The optimal CNT loading was 3 mg per cm² of carbon paper (FIG. 10, PanelA). The six electrodes stacked together as a 3-D anode increased themaximum power density by 50% and the maximum current density by 4-fold(FIG. 10, Panels A and B). Increasing the enzyme loading from 1 to 10 Uper cell drastically increased the maximum power density and maximumcurrent density to 0.35 mW cm⁻² and 4.1 mA cm⁻², respectively, at roomtemperature (23° C.) (FIG. 10, Panel C). Elevating the temperature to50° C. doubled the maximum power density to 0.8 mW cm⁻² (FIG. 10, PanelD).

The EFC comprised of the 13 non-immobilized enzymes based on 15% (wt/v)maltodextrin generated the maximum power density of 0.4 mW cm⁻² at ascanning rate of 1 mV s⁻¹ at room temperature. The EFC generated anearly constant power output of approximately 0.32 mW cm⁻² for 60 hoursin a closed system (FIG. 10, Panel F). In addition, a stack of twocuvette-based EFCs can power a digital clock and a LCD light (FIG. 20),suggesting that these EFCs could be used to power a number of electronicdevices in the near future.

The complete oxidation of the glucose units of the 15% maltodextrinsolution means that the energy storage density of this sugar-powered EFCcan be as high as 596 Ah kg⁻¹, which is more than one order of magnitudehigher than the energy storage densities for lithium-ion batteries andprimary batteries (FIG. 15 and Table 4).

TABLE 4 Comparison of energy densities of batteries and EFCs Batterytype Energy density Voltage Unit MJ kg⁻¹ Ah kg⁻¹ Wh kg⁻¹ V Ref. PrimaryBatteries Zinc-carbon battery 0.15 28 40 1.50 Wikipedia AA alkalinebattery 0.58 107 160 1.50 Wikipedia Li—MnO₂ battery 0.90 83 250 3.00Wikipedia Rechargeable Batteries Lead acid battery 0.14 19 40 2.11Wikipedia NiMH battery 0.36 80 100 1.25 Wikipedia Lithium ion battery0.54 42 150 3.60 Wikipedia Enzymatic fuel cells (biobatteries) 0.5Mmethanol solution 0.48* 80 40.2 0.50 ¹⁰ 7.2% glucose solution (2 e)0.093* 21 10.7 0.50 ⁷ 7.2% glucose solution (24 e) 1.12* 257 129 0.50Estimated 15% maltodextrin (24 e) 2.55* 596 298 0.50 This study Fuelsused for EFCs 100% methanol (6 e) 19.7* 5030 2515 0.50 Estimated 100%glucose (24 e) 15.5* 3574 1787 0.50 Estimated 100% maltodextrin (24 e)17.0* 3970 1985 0.50 Estimated *Combustion energy or higher heatingvalue.

Although the voltages of the EFCs (e.g., 0.5 V) are much lower than thevoltages of lithium-ion batteries (3.6 V), the energy density of the 15%sugar-powered EFC can reach up to 298 Wh kg-1, several times that ofcommon rechargeable batteries (e.g., Pd-acid, NiMH, and lithium-ionbatteries) and higher than that of common primary batteries (e.g.,zinc-carbon, alkaline, and Li—MnO₂ batteries) (FIG. 15). Thecuvette-based EFC (FIG. 20) has an energy storage density of ˜238 Whkg⁻¹ for the entire system, because the weight of the combined electrodematerials, the plastic cuvette, and the membrane electrode assemblyaccounts for approximately 20% of the entire device weight. Suchbiobatteries may be regarded as environmentally friendly disposableprimary batteries because they have better energy densities and lessenvironmental impact.

In addition to the one order of magnitude improvement in the energydensity of the sugar biobatteries via this synthetic pathway, relativeto the system with one redox enzyme (FIG. 15), the biobatteries equippedwith non-immobilized enzyme cascades might be refilled by the additionof the sugar solution because the sole gaseous product (CO₂) can beeasily released from the anode compartment and the non-immobilizedenzymes are not washed out of the EFCs. The non-immobilized enzyme EFCwas tested by adding the sugar solution twice (FIG. 21). However, thedecreased performance of the EFCs suggested more research anddevelopment needed for extending the life-time of EFCs.

These sugar biobatteries represent a new type of rechargeable battery.One of the greatest advantages of fuel cells compared to closed primaryand secondary batteries is that they are open systems that usehigh-energy density fuels (e.g., H₂, methanol, glucose, andmaltodextrin) that can be fed into the fuel cell device continuously(e.g., proton exchange membrane fuel cells) or sporadically (forexample, direct methanol fuel cells and sugar batteries). When theweight ratio of the fuel to the fuel cell system is large enough (i.e.,5-10) or if the fuel cell is refilled a number of times, the energydensity of the entire system including the fuel, a fuel tank, and a fuelcell system can be close to the theoretical energy density of the fuelthat is used. Clearly, the use of water-free chemicals as fuels is moreattractive in terms of energy storage density (FIG. 15). However, aseparate fuel tank and a complicated fuel feeding system is required insuch a system.

Maltodextrin is a better EFC fuel than alcohols (e.g., methanol) orglucose. Maltodextrin is slowly-utilized via the synthetic pathway togenerate a nearly constant power output (FIG. 10F) rather than a peakpower over a short time. In addition, most enzymes cannot work well inhigh concentrations of alcohol or glucose due to inhibition or low wateractivity. For example, the highest methanol concentration that can beused in EFCs is approximately 0.5 M, resulting in a lower energy storagedensity of 40.2 Wh kg⁻¹ (FIG. 15). Similarly, high concentrations ofglucose (e.g., 0.4 M) lead to high osmotic pressures (˜9.85 atm) thatcan impair enzyme activity. Compared to the six-enzyme EFC that oxidizesglucose to CO₂, the inherently low, but promiscuous, activities of oneenzyme that catalyzes several substrates once results in very low powerdensities. The use of more than 10 enzymes for implementing complexreactions for the production of biocommodities, fine chemicals, andpharmaceuticals seems not economically prohibitive.

One of the most important issues for sugar biobatteries is extendingtheir lifetime. This involves improving the stability of enzymes,cofactors, and mediators. A preliminary diagnostic experiment wasconducted to study the decreased performance of the non-immobilized EFCs(FIG. 22A). The addition of the new substrate and enzyme mixture to theEFC resulted in a quarter of the maximum power output, suggesting thatenzyme deactivation is one of the causes of the decreased power outputafter more than one week of operation at room temperature. Instead ofusing immobilized enzymes like in most EFCs, we prolonged the lifetimeof enzymes using non-immobilized thermoenzymes isolated from (hyper-)thermophilic microorganisms. Clearly, relatively non-stablethermoenzymes, such as PGI, αGP, and PGM, isolated from thermophiles canbe replaced with enzymes from hyperthermophiles or engineered mutantsenzymes generated by protein engineering (i.e., rational design,directed evolution or a combination of methods). In addition, the halflifetime of the non-immobilized enzymes increased from 5.0 days to 7.7days through the addition of 1 g L⁻¹ bovine serum albumin and 0.1%Triton X-100 (FIG. 22B), suggesting that the formulation of enzymemixture can also be adjusted to prolong the lifetime of non-immobilizedenzyme mixtures. Furthermore, replacement of old anodes with new anodesdoubles the power output to nearly half of the maximum power output(FIG. 22A), indicating that leaching of adsorbed VK₃ from the anoderesults in lower power outputs. Therefore, it will be important to adopta better method to immobilize VK₃-like mediators on the surface ofanodes.

Thus, a synthetic ATP- and CoA-free catabolic pathway comprised of 13enzymes in an air-breathing EFC is constructed to completely oxidize theglucose units of maltodextrin, yielding nearly 24 electrons per glucose.We found that the EFC based on non-immobilized enzymes exhibited amaximum power output far higher than those of the immobilized enzymes.These sugar-powered biobatteries feature high energy storage densitiesand high safety. Thus, these batteries represent next-generationmicro-power sources that could be especially useful for portableelectronics.

Engineered GsG6PDH

Wild-type Geobacillus stearothermophilus G6PDH (GsG6PDH) prefers NAD toNADP but does not work on biomimics (FIG. 7, Compounds A-E). Afterprotein engineering by rational design and/or directed evolution, anengineered GsG6PDH (T13G/R46G) was produced that worked on NMN (CompoundA) (FIG. 11).

The above disclosure provides particular embodiments of the presentinvention. It is intended that the above disclosure be considered asexemplary in nature and that variations that do not depart from theessence of the invention are intended to be within the scope of theinvention. The particular embodiments disclosed above are illustrativeonly, as the present invention may be modified and practiced indifferent but equivalent manners apparent to those skilled in the arthaving the benefit of the teachings herein.

It is evident that the particular illustrative embodiments disclosedabove may be altered or modified and all such variations are consideredwithin the scope and spirit of the present invention. It will beapparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications andvariations can be made to the above disclosure in the practice of thepresent invention without departing from the scope or spirit of theinvention. One skilled in the art will recognize that these features maybe used singularly or in any combination based on the requirements andspecifications of a given application or design.

REFERENCES

Addo, P. K., Arechederra, R. L. and Minteer, S. D. 2010. Evaluatingenzyme cascades for methanol/air biofuel cells based on NAD⁺-dependentenzymes. Electroanalysis 22, 807-812.

Akers, N. L., C. M. Moore and S. D. Minteer. 2005. Development ofalcohol/O2 biofuel cells using salt-extracted tetrabutylammoniumbromide/Nafion membranes to immobilize dehydrogenase enzymes.Electrochim. Acta 50(12):2521-2525.

Ardao, I. and Zeng, A.-P. 2013. In silico evaluation of a complexmulti-enzymatic system using one-pot and modular approaches: Applicationto the high-yield production of hydrogen from a synthetic metabolicpathway. Chem. Eng. Sci. 87:183-193.

Arechederra, R. and S. D. Minteer. 2008. Organelle-based biofuel cells:

Immobilized mitochondria on carbon paper electrodes. Electrochimica Acta53(23):6698-6703.

Arechederra, R. L. and Minteer, S. D. 2009. Complete oxidation ofglycerol in an enzymatic biofuel cell. Fuel Cells 9:63-69.

Armand, M. and J. M. Tarascon. 2008. Building better batteries. Nature451(7179):652-657.

Barbir, F. PEM Fuel Cells: Theory and Practice. (Academic Press, 2005).

Bond, D. R. and Lovley, D. R. 2003. Electricity Production by Geobactersulfurreducens Attached to Electrodes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69:1548-1555.

Bujara, M., Schümperli, M., Pellaux, R., Heinemann, M. and Panke, S.2011. Optimization of a blueprint for in vitro glycolysis by metabolicreal-time analysis. Nat. Chem. Biol. 7:271-277.

Calabrese Barton, S., Gallaway, J. and Atanassov, P. 2004. Enzymaticbiofuel bells for implantable and microscale devices. Chem. Rev.104:4867-4886.

Campbell, E., Meredith, M., Minteer, S. D. and Banta, S. 2012. Enzymaticbiofuel cells utilizing a biomimetic cofactor. Chem. Commun.48:1898-1900.

Caruana, D. J. and Howorka, S. 2010. Biosensors and biofuel cells withengineered proteins. Mol. BioSyst. 6:1548-1556.

Chakraborty, S., Sakka, M., Kimura, T. and Sakka, K. 2008. Two proteinswith diaphorase activity from Clostridium thermocellum and Moorellathermoacetica. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 72:877-879.

Chaudhuri, S. K. and Lovley, D. R. 2003. Electricity generation bydirect oxidation of glucose in mediatorless microbial fuel cells. Nat.Biotechnol. 21:1229-1232.

Chen, Z. et al. 2011. Three-dimensional flexible and conductiveinterconnected graphene networks grown by chemical vapour deposition.Nat. Mater. 10:424-428.

Chen, S. et al. 2012. Layered corrugated electrode macrostructures boostmicrobial bioelectrocatalysis. Energy Environ. Sci. 5:9769-9772.

Chen, Z. et al. 2013. New class of nonaqueous electrolytes for long-lifeand safe lithium-ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 4:1513.

Cooney, M. J., Svoboda, V., Lau, C., Martin, G. and Minteer, S. D. 2008.Enzyme catalysed biofuel cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 1:320-337.

Fish R H, Kerr J B, Lo H C; 2004. Agents for replacement of NAD+/NADHsystem in enzymatic reaction. U.S. Pat. No. 6,716,596 B2. USA.

Hong, J., Wang, Y., Ye X and Zhang, Y.-H. P. 2008. Simple proteinpurification through affinity adsorption on regenerated amorphouscellulose followed by intein self-cleavage. J. Chromatogr. A1194:150-154.

Huang, S. Y., Zhang, Y.-H. P. and Zhong, J. J. 2012. A thermostablerecombinant transaldolase with high activity over a broad pH range.Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 93:2403-2410.

Johnston, W., Cooney, M. J., Liaw, B. Y., Sapra, R. and Adams, M. W. W.2005. Design and characterization of redox enzyme electrodes: newperspectives on established techniques with application to anextremeophilic hydrogenase. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 36:540-549.

Kim, J., Jia, H. and Wang, P. 2006. Challenges in biocatalysis forenzyme-based biofuel cells. Biotechnol. Adv. 24:296-308.

Kim, Y. H., Campbell, E., Yu, J., Minteer, S. D. and Banta, S. 2013.Complete Oxidation of Methanol in Biobattery Devices Using a HydrogelCreated from Three Modified Dehydrogenases. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.52:1437-1440.

Krutsakorn, B. et al. 2013. In vitro production of n-butanol fromglucose. Metab. Eng. 20:84-91.

Martin del Campo, J. S. et al. 2013. High-Yield Production of Dihydrogenfrom Xylose by Using a Synthetic Enzyme Cascade in a Cell-Free System.Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 52:587-4590.

Minteer, S. D., B. Y. Liaw and M. J. Cooney. 2007. Enzyme-based biofuelcells. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 18(3):228-234.

Moehlenbrock, M. and S. Minteer. 2008. Extended lifetime biofuel cells.Chem. Soc. Rev. 37:1188-1196.

Myung, S., Wang, Y. R. and Zhang, Y.-H. P. 2010.Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase from a hyper-thermophilic bacteriumThermotoga maritima: Characterization, metabolite stability and itsimplications. Proc. Biochem. 45:1882-1887.

Myung, S., Zhang, X.-Z. and Zhang, Y.-H. P. 2011. Ultra-stablephosphoglucose isomerase through immobilization of cellulose-bindingmodule-tagged thermophilic enzyme on low-cost high-capacity cellulosicadsorbent. Biotechnol. Prog. 27:969-975.

Myung, S. and Zhang, Y.-H. P. 2013. Non-complexed four cascade enzymemixture: simple purification and synergetic co-stabilization. PLos One8:e61500.

Okuno H, Nagata K, Nakajima H. 1985. Purification and properties ofglucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Bacillus stearothermophilus. J.Appl. Biochem. 7:192-201.

Palmore, G. T. R., Bertschy, H., Bergens, S. H. and Whitesides, G. M.1998. A methanol/dioxygen biofuel cell that uses NAD⁺-dependentdehydrogenases as catalysts: application of an electro-enzymatic methodto regenerate nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide at low overpotentials.J. Electroanal. Chem. 443:155-161.

Rollin, J. A., Tam, W. and Zhang, Y.-H. P. 2013. New biotechnologyparadigm: cell-free biosystems for biomanufacturing. Green Chem.15:1708-1719.

Sakai, H., T. Nakagawa, H. Mita, R. Matsumoto, T. Sugiyama, H. Kumita,Y. Tokita and T. Hatazawa. 2009. A high-power glucose/oxygen biofuelcell operating under quiescent conditions. ECS Trans. 16(38):9-15.

Sakai, H., T. Nakagawa, Y. Tokita, T. Hatazawa, T. Ikeda, S. Tsujimuraand K. Kano. 2009. A high-power glucose/oxygen biofuel cell operatingunder quiescent conditions. Energy Environ. Sci. 2:133-138.

Shimizu, Y. et al. 2001. Cell-free translation reconstituted withpurified components. Nat. Biotechnol. 19:751-755.

Sokic-Lazic, D. and S. D. Minteer. 2008. Citric acid cycle biomimic on acarbon electrode. Biosens. Bioelectron. 24(4):939-944.

Sun, F. F., Zhang, X. Z., Myung, S. and Zhang, Y.-H. P. 2012.Thermophilic Thermotoga maritima ribose-5-phosphate isomerase RpiB:Optimized heat treatment purification and basic characterization.Protein Expr. Purif. 82:302-307.

Togo, M., Takamura, A., Asai, T., Kaji, H. and Nishizawa, M. 2007. Anenzyme-based microfluidic biofuel cell using vitamin K3-mediated glucoseoxidation. Electrochimica Acta 52:4669-4674.

Tokita, Y., T. Nakagawa, H. Sakai, T. Sugiyama, R. Matsumoto and T.Hatazawa. 2008. Sony's Biofuel Cell. ECS Trans. 13(21):89-97.

Walcarius, A., Minteer, S., Wang, J., Lin, Y. and Merkoci, A. 2013.Nanomaterials for bio-functionalized electrodes: recent trends. J. Mat.Chem. B 1:4878-4908.

Wang, Y. and Zhang, Y.-H. P. 2010. A highly active phosphoglucomutasefrom Clostridium thermocellum: Cloning, purification, characterization,and enhanced thermostability. J. Appl. Microbiol. 108:39-46.

Wang, Y., Huang, W., Sathitsuksanoh, N., Zhu, Z. and Zhang, Y.-H. P.2011. Biohydrogenation from biomass sugar mediated by in vitro syntheticenzymatic pathways. Chem. Biol. 18:72-380.

Willner, B., Katz, E. and Willner, I. 2006. Electrical contacting ofredox proteins by nanotechnological means. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol.17:589-596.

Wu, Z.-Y., Li, C., Liang, H.-W., Chen, J.-F. and Yu, S.-H. 2013.Ultralight, Flexible, and Fire-Resistant Carbon Nanofiber Aerogels fromBacterial Cellulose. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 52:2925-2929.

Xu, S. and Minteer, S. D. 2011. Enzymatic Biofuel Cell for Oxidation ofGlucose to CO₂. ACS Catal. 1:91-94.

You, C., Myung, S. and Zhang, Y.-H. P. 2012. Facilitated substratechanneling in a self-assembled trifunctional enzyme complex. Angew.Chem. Int. Ed. 51:8787-8790.

You, C. et al. 2013. Enzymatic transformation of nonfood biomass tostarch. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 110:7182-7187.

Ye, X. et al. 2012. Synthetic metabolic engineering—a novel, simpletechnology for designing a chimeric metabolic pathway. Microb. CellFact. 11:120.

Zaks, A. and Klibanov, A. M. 1988. The effect of water on enzyme actionin organic media. J. Biol. Chem. 263:8017-8021.

Zebda, A. et al. 2011. Mediatorless high-power glucose biofuel cellsbased on compressed carbon nanotube-enzyme electrodes. Nat. Commun 2170.

Zhang, Y.-H. P., Cui, J., Lynd, L. R. and Kuang, L. R. 2006. Atransition from cellulose swelling to cellulose dissolution byo-phosphoric acid: evidence from enzymatic hydrolysis and supramolecularstructure. Biomacromolecules 7, 644-648.

Zhang, Y.-H. P. 2009. A sweet out-of-the-box solution to the hydrogeneconomy: is the sugar-powered car science fiction? Energy Environ. Sci.2:272-282.

Zhang, Y.-H. P. 2010. Production of biocommodities and bioelectricity bycell-free synthetic enzymatic pathway biotransformations: Challenges andopportunities. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 105:663-677.

Zhao, X., Jia, H., Kim, J. and Wang, P. 2009. Kinetic limitations of abioelectrochemical electrode using carbon nanotube-attached glucoseoxidase for biofuel cells. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 104:1068-1074.

Zhu Z, Wang Y, Minteer S, Zhang Y-H P. 2011. Maltodextrin-poweredenzymatic fuel cell through a non-natural enzymatic pathway. J. PowerSources 196:7505-7509.

Zhu Z G, Sun F, Zhang X, Zhang Y-H P. 2012. Deep oxidation of glucose inenzymatic fuel cells through a synthetic enzymatic pathway containing acascade of two thermostable dehydrogenases. Biosens. Bioelectron.36:110-115.

What is claimed is:
 1. A process for generating electrons from a sugarcomprising: generating NADH or a reduced biomimic thereof from thesugar; and oxidizing the NADH or a reduced biomimic thereof to generatethe electrons at an anode, wherein the NADH or a reduced biomimicthereof is generated using a group of enzymes comprising glucose6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, ribose5-phosphate isomerase, ribulose 5-phosphate 3-epimerase, transketolase,transaldolase, triose phosphate isomerase, aldolase, fructose1,6-bisphosphatase, and phosphoglucose isomerase.
 2. The process ofclaim 1, wherein the sugar is a hexose or a pentose sugar.
 3. Theprocess of claim 1, wherein the NADH or a reduced biomimic thereof isoxided by diaphorase.
 4. The process of claim 3, wherein the NADH or areduced biomimic thereof is oxidized in the presence of one or more ofvitamin K₃, benzyl viologen, or a biomimetic thereof.
 5. The process ofclaim 3, wherein one or more of vitamin K₃, benzyl viologen, or abiomimetic thereof is immobilized on the anode surface.
 6. The processof claim 3, wherein one or more of vitamin K₃, benzyl viologen, or abiomimetic thereof is free in the anode compartment.